Reflection

13.1 Definitions of Reflective Learning and Teaching

[Reflection is the] active, persistent and careful consideration of any belief or … knowledge in the light of the grounds that support it and the further conclusion to which it tends.
Dewey (1933, p.9)

Reflection in the context of learning is a generic term for those intellectual and affective activities in which individuals engage to explore their experiences in order to lead to new understandings and appreciations.
Boud & Walker (1985, p.19)

Reflection involves the critique of assumptions about the content or process of problem solving … The critique of premises or presuppositions pertains to problem posing as distinct from problem solving. Problem posing involves making a taken-for-granted situation problematic, raising questions regarding its validity.
Mezirow (1991, p. 105)


The term reflective practice is particularly associated with the work of Schön (1983) and has proved to be immensely influential in professional education and training. Practitioners are encouraged to develop problem-solving skills relating to situations at work beyond just selecting from a pre-determined formula or procedure. This is done by reflecting on their experience of similar situations and the effectiveness of the solutions they have tried. The process of reflection involves generalising and making educated guesses about what will work in the future. These generalisations are then tested and their effectiveness as guides to practice is evaluated.

The reflective practice model goes beyond merely ‘thinking about one’s teaching’. By restricting reflection to practice, practitioners may not regard their own values, beliefs and assumptions, or those of the system within which they work as open to question. Schön describes reflection which is simply concerned with finding a better means to an unquestioned end as ‘single-loop’ learning. He encourages practitioners to engage in reflection that questions the ends themselves, what he calls ‘double-loop’ learning.

This second strand of reflection, in which we explicitly question underlying assumptions and aims, is known as critical reflection (Mezirow, 1991). It encourages learners to reflect on contradictions and dilemmas inspired by clashes between their own world-view and the value-system of the situation within which they work. This can lead to a fundamental re-making of the reflector’s value-system and is a direct product of the process of critical reflection. Mezirow calls this transformative learning and contends that it is more important than the solution of the problem that originally prompted the critical reflection

A third strand within the area of reflective learning is the idea of critical consciousness associated with Paulo Freire (1970) and his ideas of emancipatory learning. It emphasises group, rather than individual, discussion of issues and takes its themes from the collective concerns of group members. Its aim is largely political: to identify structural factors which constrain the lives, practice and understandings of specific groups and to recognise the political interests operating through such constraints.

When you wish to reflect on a particular issue, you may have good reason for operating entirely within one of these strands; at different times any one of them may be the most appropriate. Alternatively, when confronting a complex issue you may find it useful to bear in mind all three strands. For example, you might reflect on how to achieve a given objective in your work, such as implementing a quality assurance procedure (reflective practice). Going further, you might also consider the basis of your own judgements about what constitutes a desirable outcome in this situation (critical reflection, possibly leading to transformative learning) and to ask whose interests are served by the establishment of such a system (critical consciousness).